Articles
- The world of Shakespeare and the Metaphysical poets 1540-1660
- British renaissance writers
- Key events
- Making sense of the tangible world
- Making sense of the intangible world
What is a Human?
The nature of humanity
All human beings are creatures – that is, they are created. Shakespeare's audience believed that everything and everybody was created by God, the all-powerful and loving father of the universe.
An ordered created world
At the time Shakespeare was writing, the universe was seen as a hierarchy, known as the Chain of Being:
- God, the Creator, was at the top
- Next to God in the order of creation were the angelic spirits: there were thought to be nine orders, or ranks: Seraphs, Cherubs, Thrones, Principalities, Virtues, Powers, Dominions, Archangels, Angels.
As spirits, these were unchangeable, bodiless intermediaries between God and man; although they did not have bodies, they were thought to be able to create themselves bodies out of air so that they could appear to humans.
- Below these spirits were human beings, who were thought to be unique in having both a body, like animals, but also a spirit (or soul)
- Below mankind came animals, having body but no soul
- Finally were plants; then stones.
The state as a body
Parallel orders
- Just as God is at the top of the hierarchy in the Universe
- So are kings and other rulers within the state
- So is the head, the seat of reason, within the body.
Shakespeare often compares the state, or body politic, to the human body.
- For example, just as the physical body may be subject to disease, so the state may be riddled with corruption
- In many of his plays, Shakespeare uses images of disease metaphors for the corruption seen in Elizabethan society.
Reason versus passion
Shakespeare frequently stresses that it is reason which informs the soul of man and makes humans higher than animals:
- Because people have a soul, they can aspire to reach beyond their body and mortality
- If they debase their soul, and lose their reason – especially through drunkenness or by giving way to extreme passion – then they are no better than animals.
Getting the balance right
Shakespeare shows also us that it is possible to go to the other extreme. Those who forget that they are not angels, but instead have human weaknesses, are just as unaware of their own humanity as those who behave like animals.
Reprieve thee from thy fate, it should proceed.
I'll pray a thousand prayers for thy death;
No word to save thee.
I'll pray a thousand prayers for thy death;
No word to save thee.
Many of Shakespeare's protagomists have to learn what it means to be a fallible human being.
Creation and new life
Part of human nature is sexual activity. Shakespeare shows that, here too, it is important to get the balance right:
- Characters for whom sex is merely sensual, involving no commitment, are rarely respecte
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For Shakespeare's audience, marriage under the previous Roman Catholic regime had been regarded as a sacrament – a special sign of spiritual grace
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Even though Protestants did not accept marriage as a sacrament, it was nevertheless an important ceremony involving vows made in the presence of God
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Although there was inevitably sexual activity outside marriage, it was very much frowned upon, and the woman would usually be considered disgraced. Shakespeare himself got Ann Hathaway pregnant, and had to marry her hastily before the child arrived, so he would be well aware of this. (See Author section: 1564 - 1592: Stratford Beginnings.)
The blessing of procreation
However, in many plays the arrival of a child is described in terms which suggest it is a right and natural part of the creative process.
Chastity
At the other extreme is convent life. Nuns were expected to take a vow of chastity:
- This means abstaining from all sexual activity
- When she is a nun even a conversation with a man could be strictly limited.
The animate beings 'angels, humans, animals ' made by God.
The Bible describes God as the unique supreme being, creator and ruler of the universe.
A body of persons or things ranked in grades, orders, or classes. Used specifically of the 'Nine orders of angels'.
A theoretical view of the universe, often reflected in Shakespearean drama, in which every creature in the universe is in a hierarchical line of descent from the overall creator, God.
The Bible describes God as the unique supreme being, creator and ruler of the universe.
Literally, one who makes.
Supernatural beings closely linked with the work of God; his messengers, traditionally portrayed as having a winged human form.
A non-physical being, or the non-physical but vital and intelligent part of a being, not limited by physical constraints.
Seraphs were winged serpents whose images decorated many of the thrones of the Egyptian Pharaohs, thought to act as guardians over the king. The Israelites adopted the symbolism for God's throne.
One of several different types of angels, often represented as a winged child.
Chief angel. In Christian tradition Michael, Gabriel and Raphael are considered to be archangels.
Supernatural beings closely linked with the work of God; his messengers, traditionally portrayed as having a winged human form.
The spirit which gives life to a human being; the part which lives on after death; a person's inner being (personality, intellect, emotions and will) which distinguishes them from animals.
The ability of humans to think clearly and logically, and hence to make significant decisions.
The State, often envisaged using the image of a body with the ruler as the head.
An image or form of comparison where one thing is said actually to be another - e.g. 'fleecy clouds'.
The ability of humans to think clearly and logically, and hence to make significant decisions.
The spirit which gives life to a human being; the part which lives on after death; a person's inner being (personality, intellect, emotions and will) which distinguishes them from animals.
The fact that all created beings will inevitably die.
Member of a worldwide Christian church which traces its origins from St. Peter, one of Jesus' original disciples. It has a continuous history from earliest Christianity.
Religious ceremony which symbolises receiving an inward spiritual grace.
Christians whose faith and practice stems from the Reformation movement in the sixteenth century which resulted in new churches being created as an alternative to the Roman Catholic Church.
The Bible describes God as the unique supreme being, creator and ruler of the universe.
Set of buildings occupied by a female religious order.
The state of being sexually pure; it is often used with reference to virginity, but also refers to remaining faithful within marriage.
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