'Up-hill' - Language, tone and structure
Language and tone
Conversational
Up-hill has a conversational tone as it recounts the dialogue between the traveller and the guide. By not including speech marks, Rossetti incorporates the conversation into the poem itself and structures the poem around it.
‘My friend'
The one who answers the traveller's questions refers to speaker as ‘my friend'. This gives rise to the interpretation that it is Jesus who speaks and comforts. Rossetti's original readership would be familiar with a conversation recorded by the gospel of John. Here, Jesus tells his followers,
You are my friends if you do what I command. I no longer call you servants, because servants do not know their master's business. Instead, I have called you friends, for everything that I learned from my Father I have made known to you.
John 15:14-15 TNIV
Catechisms
Catechisms are often in the form of questions followed by answers to be memorized, in order to teach religious doctrines. The Anglican Book of Common Prayer, with which Rossetti would have been familiar (see Religious / philosophical context > The Bible), contains several brief catechisms for the services of baptism and confirmation (see Catechism Catechism).
By basing Up-hill on a question and answer format, Rossetti not only creates a conversational tone but also offers an imitation of the style contained in The Book of Common Prayer. By adopting an informal and intimate style, she appropriates the formal aspect of the catechism and makes it relevant for the contemporary Christian. By having the traveller ask the questions and a Christ-like voice answer them, she turns the structure of the catechism around and reinforces the notion that reassurance can be found when it is sought.
Investigating language and tone
- How comfortable do you think the speaker is in asking difficult questions?
- What indications can you find to suggest that the tone of the conversation is informal?
- Can you identify any signs that the speaker asks the questions in a state of panic?
- Compare the tone of the questioner to the tone of the respondent.
Structure and versification
Questioning
The entire poem is structured around a series of questions. In each verse, the first and the third lines are given as questions and the second and fourth as answers. This conversational format is a feature of several poems included in Goblin Market and Other Poems including The Hour and the Ghost, The Three Enemies and Christian and Jew: A Dialogue. However, whereas those poems contain lines of dialogue, in Up-hill, by incorporating the conversation into such a tight structure, Rossetti leaves its meaning more open to the interpretation of the reader.
Rhyme
Each verse has an abab rhyme scheme. Using very simple words to conclude each line, the strong masculine rhymes are emphasised. The simplicity of the rhyming words conceals the difficult subjects of life, death and eternity which are alluded to.
The abab scheme suggests a movement that is ongoing but not straight-forward. The patterned repetition can be seen to reflect the winding or spiralling upward of the hill that the speaker describes. It is also reminiscent of the scheme used in a traditional ballad.
Metre
After the trochaic opening line, the metre of Up-hill is largely iambic. As in the line, ‘From morn to night, my friend' (line 4), the words which convey the most meaning are stressed. Alternating between pentameter and trimeter lines, meaning that each line has either five or three stresses, the rhythm that the poem creates is regular, replicating the ongoing pace with which the speaker climbs the hill she describes.
By breaking out of the regular iambic rhythm with which she loosely structures the poem, Rossetti emphasises certain phrases and draws attention to the sections of the speech which are uttered more passionately than others. For instance, by beginning the line, ‘Shall I meet other wayfarers at night?' (line 9) with a trochee, the doubt contained in the word ‘shall' is emphasised (similarly in l. 3, 13 and 15). In addition, by using the word ‘wayfarers' on the same line, a dactyl is created which slows down the rising and quick iambic rhythm of the rest of the poem.
Repetition and reinforcement
The uncertainty of all the questions culminates in the final stanza when the guide actually replays the speaker's words as reassurance:
- ‘Shall I find..?' / ‘you shall find'.
- ‘Will there be beds for me and all..?' / ‘Yea, beds for all'
This is a technique often used by parents to comfort young children.
Investigating structure and versification
- Look at the appearance of the poem on the page. What does the regular and formal looking structure suggest?
- Re-read the poem aloud and identity places in which the iambic metre is broken
- How does this affect the way the poem is read or understood?
- What does it reveal about the questioner or the respondent?
- English Standard Version
- King James Version
1I am the true vine, and my Father is the vinedresser. 2Every branch in me that does not bear fruit he takes away, and every branch that does bear fruit he prunes, that it may bear more fruit. 3Already you are clean because of the word that I have spoken to you. 4Abide in me, and I in you. As the branch cannot bear fruit by itself, unless it abides in the vine, neither can you, unless you abide in me. 5I am the vine; you are the branches. Whoever abides in me and I in him, he it is that bears much fruit, for apart from me you can do nothing. 6If anyone does not abide in me he is thrown away like a branch and withers; and the branches are gathered, thrown into the fire, and burned. 7If you abide in me, and my words abide in you, ask whatever you wish, and it will be done for you. 8By this my Father is glorified, that you bear much fruit and so prove to be my disciples. 9As the Father has loved me, so have I loved you. Abide in my love. 10If you keep my commandments, you will abide in my love, just as I have kept my Father's commandments and abide in his love. 11These things I have spoken to you, that my joy may be in you, and that your joy may be full. 12This is my commandment, that you love one another as I have loved you. 13Greater love has no one than this, that someone lay down his life for his friends. 14You are my friends if you do what I command you. 15No longer do I call you servants, for the servant does not know what his master is doing; but I have called you friends, for all that I have heard from my Father I have made known to you. 16You did not choose me, but I chose you and appointed you that you should go and bear fruit and that your fruit should abide, so that whatever you ask the Father in my name, he may give it to you. 17These things I command you, so that you will love one another. 18If the world hates you, know that it has hated me before it hated you. 19If you were of the world, the world would love you as its own; but because you are not of the world, but I chose you out of the world, therefore the world hates you. 20Remember the word that I said to you: A servant is not greater than his master. If they persecuted me, they will also persecute you. If they kept my word, they will also keep yours. 21But all these things they will do to you on account of my name, because they do not know him who sent me. 22If I had not come and spoken to them, they would not have been guilty of sin, but now they have no excuse for their sin. 23Whoever hates me hates my Father also. 24If I had not done among them the works that no one else did, they would not be guilty of sin, but now they have seen and hated both me and my Father. 25But the word that is written in their Law must be fulfilled: They hated me without a cause. 26But when the Helper comes, whom I will send to you from the Father, the Spirit of truth, who proceeds from the Father, he will bear witness about me. 27And you also will bear witness, because you have been with me from the beginning.
1I am the true vine, and my Father is the husbandman. 2Every branch in me that beareth not fruit he taketh away: and every branch that beareth fruit, he purgeth it, that it may bring forth more fruit. 3Now ye are clean through the word which I have spoken unto you. 4Abide in me, and I in you. As the branch cannot bear fruit of itself, except it abide in the vine; no more can ye, except ye abide in me. 5I am the vine, ye are the branches: He that abideth in me, and I in him, the same bringeth forth much fruit: for without me ye can do nothing. 6If a man abide not in me, he is cast forth as a branch, and is withered; and men gather them, and cast them into the fire, and they are burned. 7If ye abide in me, and my words abide in you, ye shall ask what ye will, and it shall be done unto you. 8Herein is my Father glorified, that ye bear much fruit; so shall ye be my disciples. 9As the Father hath loved me, so have I loved you: continue ye in my love. 10If ye keep my commandments, ye shall abide in my love; even as I have kept my Father's commandments, and abide in his love. 11These things have I spoken unto you, that my joy might remain in you, and that your joy might be full. 12This is my commandment, That ye love one another, as I have loved you. 13Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay down his life for his friends. 14Ye are my friends, if ye do whatsoever I command you. 15Henceforth I call you not servants; for the servant knoweth not what his lord doeth: but I have called you friends; for all things that I have heard of my Father I have made known unto you. 16Ye have not chosen me, but I have chosen you, and ordained you, that ye should go and bring forth fruit, and that your fruit should remain: that whatsoever ye shall ask of the Father in my name, he may give it you. 17These things I command you, that ye love one another. 18If the world hate you, ye know that it hated me before it hated you. 19If ye were of the world, the world would love his own: but because ye are not of the world, but I have chosen you out of the world, therefore the world hateth you. 20Remember the word that I said unto you, The servant is not greater than his lord. If they have persecuted me, they will also persecute you; if they have kept my saying, they will keep yours also. 21But all these things will they do unto you for my name's sake, because they know not him that sent me. 22If I had not come and spoken unto them, they had not had sin: but now they have no cloak for their sin. 23He that hateth me hateth my Father also. 24If I had not done among them the works which none other man did, they had not had sin: but now have they both seen and hated both me and my Father. 25But this cometh to pass, that the word might be fulfilled that is written in their law, They hated me without a cause. 26But when the Comforter is come, whom I will send unto you from the Father, even the Spirit of truth, which proceedeth from the Father, he shall testify of me: 27And ye also shall bear witness, because ye have been with me from the beginning.
The name given to the man believed by Christians to be the Son of God. Also given the title Christ, meaning 'anointed one' or Messiah. His life is recorded most fully in the Four Gospels.
The name given to the man believed by Christians to be the Son of God. Also given the title Christ, meaning 'anointed one' or Messiah. His life is recorded most fully in the Four Gospels.
Instruction on the doctrine of a Christian church by a series of questions and answers, which believers were expected to learn.
The teaching on the beliefs of a religion, usually taught by theologians or teachers appointed by their church.
The Anglican church is the 'Established' or state church of England, the result of a break with the Catholic church under Henry VIII and further developments in the reign of Elizabeth I.
The book of prayers and church services first put together by Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury in the time of King Edward VI (1547-53) for common (ie. general) use in English churches.
The immersion in or pouring over of water, in the name of God the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, to signify the washing away of away of sin. Baptism in Christian churches marks the acceptance of the baptised child or adult into the church.
A ceremony in which a bishop lays his hands on those who have previously been baptised and prays that God will give them power through the Holy Spirit to live as followers of Christ.
Name originally given to disciples of Jesus by outsiders and gradually adopted by the Early Church.
The device, frequently used at the ends of lines in poetry, where words with the same sound are paired, sometimes for contrast ' for example, 'breath' and 'death'.
Rhyme which occurs on a final stressed syllable
Traditional poem or song, usually consisting of quatrains with abcb rhyme and iambic tetrameters.
Use of a metric foot in a line of verse, consisting of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed. It is thus a falling metre.
The particular measurement in a line of poetry, determined by the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables (in some languages, the pattern of long and short syllables). It is the measured basis of rhythm.
A term used of speech rhythms in blank verse; an iambic rhythm is an unstressed, or weak, beat followed by a stressed, or strong, beat. It is a rising metre.
A line containing five stressed syllables or feet.
A line of verse of three feet or stresses.
A metric foot in a line of verse, consisting of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed. It is thus a falling metre.
A unit of metre or foot, consisting of a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed ones. It is thus a falling metre, like the trochaic.
John is quite unlike the other gospels in its concentration on the significance of Jesus as seen through the eyes of the beloved Disciple who was almost certainly John the son of Zebedee, the traditional author of this gospel. It is the gospel of signs and includes the unique series of I am sayings by Jesus e.g. 'I am the way, the truth and the life'. This recalls the portrayal of God as the I AM in the Old Testament (Ex 3:14).
Famous stories from the Bible: Feeding of the 5000; Jesus and Nicodemus; Jesus, his death and resurrection
Big ideas: Bread; Blood; Cross; Sheep, shepherd, lambs; Miracles
